This article is aimed at developers (with a focus on PHP), but any computer user should be able to benefit from it.
Getting the basics straight
Everybody is aware of this at some level, but somehow this knowledge
seems to suddenly disappear in a discussion about text, so let's get it
out first: A computer cannot store "letters", "numbers", "pictures" or
anything else. The only thing it can store and work with are bits. A bit can only have two values: yes or no, true or false, 1 or 0
or whatever else you want to call these two values. Since a computer
works with electricity, an "actual" bit is a blip of electricity that
either is or isn't there. For humans, this is usually represented using 1 and 0 and I'll stick with this convention throughout this article.
To use bits to represent anything at all besides bits, we need rules.
We need to convert a sequence of bits into something like letters,
numbers and pictures using an encoding scheme, or encoding for short. Like this:
01100010 01101001 01110100 01110011
b i t s
In this encoding, 01100010 stands for the letter "b", 01101001 for the letter "i", 01110100 stands for "t" and 01110011
for "s". A certain sequence of bits stands for a letter and a letter
stands for a certain sequence of bits. If you can keep this in your head
for 26 letters or are really fast with looking stuff up in a table, you
could read bits like a book.
The above encoding scheme happens to be ASCII. A string of 1s and 0s is broken down into parts of eight bit each (a byte
for short). The ASCII encoding specifies a table translating bytes into
human readable letters. Here's a short excerpt of that table:
bits
character
01000001
A
01000010
B
01000011
C
01000100
D
01000101
E
01000110
F
There are 95 human readable characters specified in the ASCII table,
including the letters A through Z both in upper and lower case, the
numbers 0 through 9, a handful of punctuation marks and characters like
the dollar symbol, the ampersand and a few others. It also includes 33
values for things like space, line feed, tab, backspace and so on. These
are not printable per se, but still visible in some form and
useful to humans directly. A number of values are only useful to a
computer, like codes to signify the start or end of a text. In total
there are 128 characters defined in the ASCII encoding, which is a nice
round number (for people dealing with computers), since it uses all
possible combinations of 7 bits (0000000, 0000001, 0000010 through 1111111).1
And there you have it, the way to represent human-readable text using only 1s and 0s.
To encode something in ASCII, follow the table from right to
left, substituting letters for bits. To decode a string of bits into
human readable characters, follow the table from left to right,
substituting bits for letters.
encode |enˈkōd|
verb [ with obj. ] convert into a coded form code |kōd|
noun a system of words, letters, figures, or other symbols substituted for other words, letters, etc.
To encode means to use something to represent something else. An encoding is the set of rules with which to convert something from one representation to another.
Other terms which deserve clarification in this context:
character set, charset
The set of characters that can be encoded. "The ASCII encoding
encompasses a character set of 128 characters." Essentially synonymous
to "encoding".
code page
A "page" of codes that map a character to a number or bit sequence. A.k.a. "the table". Essentially synonymous to "encoding".
string
A string is a bunch of items strung together. A bit string is a bunch of bits, like 01010011. A character string is a bunch of characters, like this. Synonymous to "sequence".
Binary, octal, decimal, hex
There are many ways to write numbers. 10011111 in binary is 237 in
octal is 159 in decimal is 9F in hexadecimal. They all represent the
same value, but hexadecimal is shorter and easier to read than binary. I
will stick with binary throughout this article to get the point across
better and spare the reader one layer of abstraction. Do not be alarmed
to see character codes referred to in other notations elsewhere, it's
all the same thing.
Excusez-moi?
Now that we know what we're talking about, let's just say it: 95
characters really isn't a lot when it comes to languages. It covers the
basics of English, but what about writing a risqué letter in French? A
Straßenübergangsänderungsgesetz in German? An invitation to a
smörgåsbord in Swedish? Well, you couldn't. Not in ASCII. There's no
specification on how to represent any of the letters é, ß, ü, ä, ö or å
in ASCII, so you can't use them.
"But look at it," the Europeans said, "in a common computer with 8
bits to the byte, ASCII is wasting an entire bit which is always set to 0!
We can use that bit to squeeze a whole 'nother 128 values into that
table!" And so they did. But even so, there are more than 128 ways to
stroke, slice, slash and dot a vowel. Not all variations of letters and
squiggles used in all European languages can be represented in the same
table with a maximum of 256 values. So what the world ended up with is a wealth of encoding schemes,
standards, de-facto standards and half-standards that all cover a
different subset of characters. Somebody needed to write a document
about Swedish in Czech, found that no encoding covered both languages
and invented one. Or so I imagine it went countless times over.
And not to forget about Russian, Hindi, Arabic, Hebrew, Korean and
all the other languages currently in active use on this planet. Not to
mention the ones not in use anymore. Once you have solved the problem of
how to write mixed language documents in all of these languages, try
yourself on Chinese. Or Japanese. Both contain tens of thousands of
characters. You have 256 possible values to a byte consisting of 8 bit.
Go!
Multi-byte encodings
To create a table that maps characters to letters for a language that
uses more than 256 characters, one byte simply isn't enough. Using two
bytes (16 bits), it's possible to encode 65,536 distinct values. BIG-5 is such a double-byte encoding.
Instead of breaking a string of bits into blocks of eight, it breaks it
into blocks of 16 and has a big (I mean, BIG) table that specifies
which character each combination of bits maps to. BIG-5 in its basic
form covers mostly Traditional Chinese characters. GB18030
is another encoding which essentially does the same thing, but includes
both Traditional and Simplified Chinese characters. And before you ask,
yes, there are encodings which cover only Simplified Chinese. Can't
just have one encoding now, can we?
Here a small excerpt from the GB18030 table:
bits
character
10000001 01000000
丂
10000001 01000001
丄
10000001 01000010
丅
10000001 01000011
丆
10000001 01000100
丏
GB18030 covers quite a range of characters (including a large part of
latin characters), but in the end is yet another specialized encoding
format among many.
Unicode to the confusion
Finally somebody had enough of the mess and set out to forge a ring to bind them all
create one encoding standard to unify all encoding standards. This
standard is Unicode. It basically defines a ginormous table of 1,114,112
code points that can be used for all sorts of letters and symbols.
That's plenty to encode all European, Middle-Eastern, Far-Eastern,
Southern, Northern, Western, pre-historian and future characters mankind
knows about.2
Using Unicode, you can write a document containing virtually any
language using any character you can type into a computer. This was
either impossible or very very hard to get right before Unicode came
along. There's even an unofficial section for Klingon in Unicode. Indeed, Unicode is big enough to allow for unofficial, private-use areas.
So, how many bits does Unicode use to encode all these characters? None. Because Unicode is not an encoding.
Confused? Many people seem to be. Unicode first and foremost defines a table of code points for characters. That's a fancy way of saying "65 stands for A, 66 stands for B and 9,731 stands for ☃" (seriously, it does). How these code points are actually encoded into bits
is a different topic. To represent 1,114,112 different values, two
bytes aren't enough. Three bytes are, but three bytes are often awkward
to work with, so four bytes would be the comfortable minimum. But,
unless you're actually using Chinese or some of the other characters
with big numbers that take a lot of bits to encode, you're never going
to use a huge chunk of those four bytes. If the letter "A" was always
encoded to 00000000 00000000 00000000 01000001, "B" always to 00000000 00000000 00000000 01000010 and so on, any document would bloat to four times the necessary size.
To optimize this, there are several ways to encode Unicode code
points into bits. UTF-32 is such an encoding that encodes all Unicode
code points using 32 bits. That is, four bytes per character. It's very
simple, but often wastes a lot of space. UTF-16 and UTF-8 are variable-length encodings.
If a character can be represented using a single byte (because its code
point is a very small number), UTF-8 will encode it with a single byte.
If it requires two bytes, it will use two bytes and so on. It has
elaborate ways to use the highest bits in a byte to signal how many
bytes a character consists of. This can save space, but may also waste
space if these signal bits need to be used often. UTF-16 is in the
middle, using at least two bytes, growing to up to four bytes as
necessary.
character
encoding
bits
A
UTF-8
01000001
A
UTF-16
00000000 01000001
A
UTF-32
00000000 00000000 00000000 01000001
あ
UTF-8
11100011 10000001 10000010
あ
UTF-16
00110000 01000010
あ
UTF-32
00000000 00000000 00110000 01000010
And that's all there is to it. Unicode is a large table mapping
characters to numbers and the different UTF encodings specify how these
numbers are encoded as bits. Overall, Unicode is yet another encoding scheme. There's nothing special about it, it's just trying to cover everything while still being efficient. And that's A Good Thing.™
Code points
Characters are referred to by their "Unicode code point". Unicode
code points are written in hexadecimal (to keep the numbers shorter),
preceded by a "U+" (that's just what they do, it has no other meaning
than "this is a Unicode code point"). The character Ḁ has the Unicode
code point U+1E00. In other (decimal) words, it is the 7680th character
of the Unicode table. It is officially called "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A
WITH RING BELOW".
TL;DR
A summary of all the above: Any character can be encoded in many
different bit sequences and any particular bit sequence can represent
many different characters, depending on which encoding is used to read
or write them. The reason is simply because different encodings use
different numbers of bits per characters and different values to
represent different characters.
bits
encoding
characters
11000100 01000010
Windows Latin 1
ÄB
11000100 01000010
Mac Roman
ƒB
11000100 01000010
GB18030
腂
characters
encoding
bits
Føö
Windows Latin 1
01000110 11111000 11110110
Føö
Mac Roman
01000110 10111111 10011010
Føö
UTF-8
01000110 11000011 10111000 11000011 10110110
Misconceptions, confusions and problems
Having said all that, we come to the actual problems experienced by
many users and programmers every day, how those problems relate to all
of the above and what their solution is. The biggest problem of all is:
Why in god's name are my characters garbled?!
ÉGÉìÉRÅ[ÉfÉBÉìÉOÇÕìÔǵÇ≠ǻǢ
If you open a document and it looks like this, there's one and only
one reason for it: Your text editor, browser, word processor or whatever
else that's trying to read the document is assuming the wrong encoding.
That's all. The document is not broken (well, unless it is, see below),
there's no magic you need to perform, you simply need to select the
right encoding to display the document.
The hypothetical document above contains this sequence of bits:
Now, quick, what encoding is that? If you just shrugged, you'd be correct. Who knows, right‽
Well, let's try to interpret this as ASCII. Hmm, most of these bytes start3 with a 1 bit. If you remember correctly, ASCII doesn't use that bit. So it's not ASCII. What about UTF-8? Hmm, no, most of these sequences are not valid UTF-8.4
So UTF-8 is out, too. Let's try "Mac Roman" (yet another encoding
scheme for them Europeans). Hey, all those bytes are valid in Mac Roman.
10000011 maps to "É", 01000111 to "G" and so
on. If you read this bit sequence using the Mac Roman encoding, the
result is "ÉGÉìÉRÅ[ÉfÉBÉìÉOÇÕìÔǵÇ≠ǻǢ". That looks like a valid
string, no? Yes? Maybe? Well, how's the computer to know? Maybe somebody
meant to write "ÉGÉìÉRÅ[ÉfÉBÉìÉOÇÕìÔǵÇ≠ǻǢ". For all I know that
could be a DNA sequence.5
Unless you have a better suggestion, let's declare this to be a DNA
sequence, say this document was encoded in Mac Roman and call it a day.
Of course, that unfortunately is complete nonsense. The correct
answer is that this text is encoded in the Japanese Shift-JIS encoding
and was supposed to read "エンコーディングは難しくない". Well, who'd've thunk?
The primary cause of garbled text is: Somebody is trying to
read a byte sequence using the wrong encoding. The computer always needs
to be told what encoding some text is in. Otherwise it can't know.
There are different ways how different kinds of documents can specify
what encoding they're in and these ways should be used. A raw bit
sequence is always a mystery box and could mean anything.
Most browsers allow the selection of a different encoding in the View
menu under the menu option "Text Encoding", which causes the browser to
reinterpret the current page using the selected encoding. Other
programs may offer something like "Reopen using encoding…" in the File
menu, or possibly an "Import…" option which allows the user to manually
select an encoding.
My document doesn't make sense in any encoding!
If a sequence of bits doesn't make sense (to a human) in any
encoding, the document has mostly likely been converted incorrectly at
some point. Say we took the above text "ÉGÉìÉRÅ[ÉfÉBÉìÉOÇÕìÔǵÇ≠ǻǢ"
because we didn't know any better and saved it as UTF-8. The text editor
assumed it correctly read a Mac Roman encoded text and you now want to
save this text in a different encoding. All of these characters are
valid Unicode characters after all. That is to say, there's a code point
in Unicode that can represent "É", one that can represent "G" and so
on. So we can happily save this text as UTF-8:
This is now the UTF-8 bit sequence representing the text
"ÉGÉìÉRÅ[ÉfÉBÉìÉOÇÕìÔǵÇ≠ǻǢ". This bit sequence has absolutely nothing
to do with our original document. Whatever encoding we try to open it
in, we won't ever get the text "エンコーディングは難しくない" from it. It is
completely lost. It would be possible to recover the original text from
it if we knew that a Shift-JIS document was misinterpreted as Mac Roman
and then accidentally saved as UTF-8 and reversed this chain of
missteps. But that would be a lucky fluke.
Many times certain bit sequences are invalid in a particular
encoding. If we tried to open the original document using ASCII, some
bytes would be valid in ASCII and map to a real character and others
wouldn't. The program you're opening it with may decide to silently
discard any bytes that aren't valid in the chosen encoding, or possibly
replace them with ?. There's also the "Unicode replacement
character" � (U+FFFD) which a program may decide to insert for any
character it couldn't decode correctly when trying to handle Unicode. If
a document is saved with some characters gone or replaced, then those
characters are really gone for good with no way to reverse-engineer them.
If a document has been misinterpreted and converted to a different
encoding, it's broken. Trying to "repair" it may or may not be
successful, usually it isn't. Any manual bit-shifting or other encoding
voodoo is mostly that, voodoo. It's trying to fix the symptoms after the
patient has already died.
So how to handle encodings correctly?
It's really simple: Know what encoding a certain piece of
text, that is, a certain byte sequence, is in, then interpret it with
that encoding. That's all you need to do. If you're writing an app that
allows the user to input some text, specify what encoding you accept
from the user. For any sort of text field, the programmer can usually
decide its encoding. For any sort of file a user may upload or import
into a program, there needs to be a specification what encoding that
file should be in. Alternatively, the user needs some way to tell the
program what encoding the file is in. This information may be part of
the file format itself, or it may be a selection the user has make (not
that most users would usually know, unless they have read this article).
If you need to convert from one encoding to another, do so cleanly
using tools that are specialized for that. Converting between encodings
is the tedious task of comparing two code pages and deciding that
character 152 in encoding A is the same as character 4122 in encoding B,
then changing the bits accordingly. This particular wheel does not need
reinventing and any mainstream programming language includes some way
of converting text from one encoding to another without needing to think
about code points, pages or bits at all.
Say, your app must accept files uploaded in GB18030, but internally you are handling all data in UTF-32. A tool like iconv can cleanly convert the uploaded file with a one-liner like iconv('GB18030', 'UTF-32', $string). That is, it will preserve the characters while changing the underlying bits:
character
GB18030 encoding
UTF-32 encoding
縧
10111111 01101100
00000000 00000000 01111110 00100111
That's all there is to it. The content of the string, that
is, the human readable characters, didn't change, but it's now a valid
UTF-32 string. If you keep treating it as UTF-32, there's no problem
with garbled characters. As discussed at the very beginning
though, not all encoding schemes can represent all characters. It's not
possible to encode the character "縧" in any encoding scheme designed
for European languages. Something Bad™ would happen if you tried to.
Unicode all the way
Precisely because of that, there's virtually no excuse in this day
and age not to be using Unicode all the way. Some specialized encodings
may be more efficient than the Unicode encodings for certain languages.
But unless you're storing terabytes and terabytes of very specialized
text (and that's a lot of text), there's usually no reason to
worry about it. Problems stemming from incompatible encoding schemes are
much worse than a wasted gigabyte or two these days. And this will
become even truer as storage and bandwidth keeps growing larger and
cheaper.
If your system needs to work with other encodings, convert them to
Unicode upon input and convert them back to other encodings on output as
necessary. Otherwise, be very aware of what encodings you're dealing
with at which point and convert as necessary, if that's possible without
losing any information.
Flukes
I have this website talking to a database. My app handles
everything as UTF-8 and stores it as such in the database and everything
works fine, but when I look at my database admin interface my text is
garbled.
-- Anonymous code monkey
There are situations where encodings are handled incorrectly but
things still work. An often-encountered situation is a database that's
set to latin-1 and an app that works with UTF-8 (or any other encoding). Pretty much any combination of 1s and 0s is valid in the single-byte latin-1 encoding scheme. If the database receives text from an application that looks like 11100111 10111000 10100111,
it'll happily store it, thinking the app meant to store the three latin
characters "縧". After all, why not? It then later returns this bit
sequence back to the app, which will happily accept it as the UTF-8
sequence for "縧", which it originally stored. The database admin
interface automatically figures out that the database is set to latin-1 though and interprets any text as latin-1, so all values look garbled only in the admin interface.
That's a case of fool's luck where things happen to work when they
actually aren't. Any sort of operation on the text in the database may
or may not work as intended, since the database is not interpreting the
text correctly. In a worst case scenario, the database inadvertently
destroys all text during some random operation two years after the
system went into production because it was operating on text assuming
the wrong encoding.6
UTF-8 and ASCII
The ingenious thing about UTF-8 is that it's binary compatible with
ASCII, which is the de-facto baseline for all encodings. All characters
available in the ASCII encoding only take up a single byte in UTF-8 and
they're the exact same bytes as are used in ASCII. In other words, ASCII
maps 1:1 unto UTF-8. Any character not in ASCII takes up two or more
bytes in UTF-8. For most programming languages that expect to parse
ASCII, this means you can include UTF-8 text directly in your programs:
$string = "漢字";
Saving this as UTF-8 results in this bit sequence:
Only bytes 12 through 17 (the ones starting with 1) are
UTF-8 characters (two characters with three bytes each). All the
surrounding characters are perfectly good ASCII. A parser would read
this as follows:
To the parser, anything following a quotation mark is just a byte
sequence which it will take as-is until it encounters another quotation
mark. If you simply output this byte sequence, you're outputting UTF-8
text. No need to do anything else. The parser does not need to
specifically support UTF-8, it just needs to take strings literally.
Naive parsers can support Unicode this way without actually supporting
Unicode. Many modern languages are explicitly Unicode-aware though.
Encodings and PHP
PHP doesn't natively support Unicode. Except it actually supports it quite well. The previous section
shows how UTF-8 characters can be embedded in any program directly
without problems, since UTF-8 is backwards compatible with ASCII, which
is all PHP needs. The statement "PHP doesn't natively support Unicode" is true though and it seems to cause a lot of confusion in the PHP community.
False promises
One specific pet-peeve of mine are the functions utf8_encode and utf8_decode. I often see nonsense along the lines of "To use Unicode in PHP you need to utf8_encode your text on input and utf8_decode on output".
These two functions seem to promise some sort of automagic conversion
of text to UTF-8 which is "necessary" since "PHP doesn't support
Unicode". If you've been following this article at all though, you
should know by now that
there's nothing special about UTF-8 and
you cannot encode text to UTF-8 after the fact
To clarify that second point: All text is already encoded in some encoding. When you type it into the source code, it has some encoding. Specifically, whatever you saved it as in your text editor. If you get it from a database, it's already in some encoding. If you read it from a file, it's already in some encoding.
Text is either encoded in UTF-8 or it's not. If it's not, it's
encoded in ASCII, ISO-8859-1, UTF-16 or some other encoding. If it's not
encoded in UTF-8 but is supposed to contain "UTF-8 characters",7
then you have a case of cognitive dissonance. If it does contain actual
characters encoded in UTF-8, then it's actually UTF-8 encoded. Text
can't contain Unicode characters without being encoded in one of the
Unicode encodings.
So what in the world does utf8_encodedo then?
Aha! So what the author actually wanted to say is that it converts the encoding of text from ISO-8859-1 to UTF-8. That's all there is to it. utf8_encode must have been named by some European without any foresight and is a horrible, horrible misnomer. The same goes for utf8_decode.
These functions are useless for any purpose other than converting
between ISO-8859-1 and UTF-8. If you need to convert a string from any
other encoding to any other encoding, look no further than iconv. utf8_encode is not a magic wand that needs to be swung
over any and all text because "PHP doesn't support Unicode". Rather, it
seems to cause more encoding problems than it solves thanks to terrible
naming and unknowing developers.
Native-schmative
So what does it mean for a language to natively support or not
support Unicode? It basically refers to whether the language assumes
that one character equals one byte or not. For example, PHP allows
direct access to the characters of a string using array notation:
echo $string[0];
If that $string was in a single-byte encoding, this
would give us the first character. But only because "character"
coincides with "byte" in a single-byte encoding. PHP simply gives us the first byte without thinking about "characters". Strings are byte sequences to PHP, nothing more, nothing less. All this "readable character" stuff is a human thing and PHP doesn't care about it.
01000100 01101111 01101110 00100111 01110100
D o n ' t
01100011 01100001 01110010 01100101 00100001
c a r e !
The same goes for many standard functions such as substr, strpos, trim and so on. The non-support arises if there's a discrepancy between the length of a byte and a character.
Using $string[0] on the above string will, again, give us the first byte, which is 11100110. In other words, a third of the three-byte character "漢". 11100110
is, by itself, an invalid UTF-8 sequence, so the string is now broken.
If you felt like it, you could try to interpret that in some other
encoding where 11100110 represents a valid character, which will result in some random character. Have fun, but don't use it in production.
And that's actually all there is to it. "PHP doesn't natively support Unicode" simply means that most PHP functions assume one byte = one character,
which may lead to it chopping multi-byte characters in half or
calculating the length of strings incorrectly if you're naively using
non-multi-byte-aware functions on multi-byte strings. It does not mean that you can't use Unicode in PHP or that every Unicode string needs to be blessed by utf8_encode or other such nonsense.
Luckily, there's the Multibyte String extension, which replicates all important string functions in a multi-byte aware fashion. Using mb_substr($string, 0, 1, 'UTF-8') on the above string correctly returns 11100110 10111100 10100010, which is the whole "漢" character. Because the mb_
functions now have to actually think about what they're doing, they
need to know what encoding they're working on. Therefore every mb_ function accepts an $encoding parameter as well. Alternatively, this can be set globally for all mb_ functions using mb_internal_encoding.
Using and abusing PHP's handling of encodings
The whole issue of PHP's (non-)support for Unicode is that it just doesn't care.
Strings are byte sequences to PHP. What bytes in particular doesn't
matter. PHP doesn't do anything with strings except keeping them stored
in memory. PHP simply doesn't have any concept of either characters or
encodings. And unless it tries to manipulate strings, it
doesn't need to either; it just holds onto bytes that may or may not
eventually be interpreted as characters by somebody else. The only requirement
PHP has of encodings is that PHP source code needs to be saved in an
ASCII compatible encoding. The PHP parser is looking for certain
characters that tell it what to do. $ (00100100) signals the start of a variable, = (00111101) an assignment, " (00100010)
the start and end of a string and so on. Anything else that doesn't
have any special significance to the parser is just taken as a literal
byte sequence. That includes anything between quotes, as discussed
above. This means the following:
You can't save PHP source code in an ASCII-incompatible encoding. For example, in UTF-16 a " is encoded
as 00000000 00100010. To PHP, which tries to read everything as ASCII, that's a NUL byte followed by a ".
PHP will probably get a hiccup if every other character it finds is a NUL byte.
You can save PHP source code in any ASCII-compatible encoding. If the first 128 code points of an encoding are
identical to ASCII, PHP can parse it. All characters that are in any way significant to PHP are within the 128 code
points defined by ASCII. If string literals contain any code points beyond that, PHP doesn't care. You can save PHP source
code in ISO-8859-1, Mac Roman, UTF-8 or any other ASCII-compatible encoding. The string literals in your script will
have whatever encoding you saved your source code as.
Any external file you process with PHP can be in whatever encoding you like. If PHP doesn't need to parse it, there
are no requirements to meet to keep the PHP parser happy.
$foo = file_get_contents('bar.txt');
The above will simply read the bits in bar.txt into the variable $foo. PHP doesn't try to interpret,
convert, encode or otherwise fiddle with the contents. The file can even contain binary data such as an image,
PHP doesn't care.
If internal and external encodings have to match, they have to match. A common case is localization, where
the source code contains something like echo localize('Foobar') and an external localization file contains
something along the lines of this:
msgid "Foobar"
msgstr "フーバー"
Both "Foobar" strings need to have an identical bit representation if you want to find the correct localization.
If the source code was saved in ASCII but the localization file in UTF-16, the strings wouldn't match.
Either some sort of encoding conversion would be necessary or the use of an encoding-aware string matching function.
The astute reader might ask at this point whether it's possible to
save a, say, UTF-16 byte sequence inside a string literal of an ASCII
encoded source code file, to which the answer would be: absolutely.
echo "UTF-16";
If you can bring your text editor to save the echo " and "; parts in ASCII and only UTF-16 in UTF-16, this will work just fine. The necessary binary representation for that looks like this:
01100101 01100011 01101000 01101111 00100000 00100010
e c h o "
11111110 11111111 00000000 01010101 00000000 01010100
(UTF-16 marker) U T
00000000 01000110 00000000 00101101 00000000 00110001
F - 1
00000000 00110110 00100010 00111011
6 " ;
The first line and the last two bytes are ASCII. The rest is UTF-16 with two bytes per character. The leading 11111110 11111111
on line 2 is a marker required at the start of UTF-16 encoded text
(required by the UTF-16 standard, PHP doesn't give a damn). This PHP
script will happily output the string "UTF-16" encoded in UTF-16,
because it simple outputs the bytes between the two double quotes, which
happens to represent the text "UTF-16" encoded in UTF-16. The source
code file is neither completely valid ASCII nor UTF-16 though, so
working with it in a text editor won't be much fun.
Bottom line
PHP supports Unicode, or in fact any encoding, just fine, as
long as certain requirements are met to keep the parser happy and the
programmer knows what he's doing. You really only need to be careful
when manipulating strings, which includes slicing, trimming, counting and other operations that need to happen on a character level rather than a byte
level. If you're not "doing anything" with your strings besides reading
and outputting them, you will hardly have any problems with PHP's
support of encodings that you wouldn't have in any other language as
well.
Encoding-aware languages
What does it mean for a language to support Unicode then? Javascript
for example supports Unicode. In fact, any string in Javascript is
UTF-16 encoded. In fact, it's the only thing Javascript deals with. You
cannot have a string in Javascript that is not UTF-16 encoded.
Javascript worships Unicode to the extent that there's no facility to
deal with any other encoding in the core language. Since Javascript is
most often run in a browser that's not a problem, since the browser can
handle the mundane logistics of encoding and decoding input and output.
Other languages are simply encoding-aware. Internally they
store strings in a particular encoding, often UTF-16. In turn they need
to be told or try to detect the encoding of everything that has to do
with text. They need to know what encoding the source code is saved in,
what encoding a file they're supposed to read is in, what encoding you
want to output text in; and they convert encodings on the fly as needed
with some manifestation of Unicode as the middleman. They're doing the
same thing you can/should/need to do in PHP semi-automatically behind
the scenes. That's neither better nor worse than PHP, just different.
The nice thing about it is that standard language functions that deal
with strings Just Work™, while in PHP one needs to spare some attention
to whether a string may contain multi-byte characters or not and choose
string manipulation functions accordingly.
The depths of Unicode
Since Unicode deals with many different scripts and many different
problems, it has a lot of depth to it. For example, the Unicode standard
contains information for such problems as CJK ideograph unification.
That means, information that two or more Chinese/Japanese/Korean
characters actually represent the same character in slightly different
writing methods. Or rules about converting from lower case to upper
case, vice-versa and round-trip, which is not always as straight forward
in all scripts as it is in most Western European Latin-derived scripts.
Some characters can also be represented using different code points.
The letter "ö" for example can be represented using the code point
U+00F6 ("LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH DIAERESIS") or as the two code points
U+006F ("LATIN SMALL LETTER O") and U+0308 ("COMBINING DIAERESIS"),
that is the letter "o" combined with "¨". In UTF-8 that's either the
double-byte sequence 11000011 10110110 or the three-byte sequence 01101111 11001100 10001000, both representing the same human readable character. As such, there are rules governing Normalization
within the Unicode standard, i.e. how either of these forms can be
converted into the other. This and a lot more is outside the scope of
this article, but one should be aware of it.
Final TL;DR
Text is always a sequence of bits which needs to be translated into
human readable text using lookup tables. If the wrong lookup table is
used, the wrong character is used.
You're never actually directly dealing with "characters" or "text", you're always dealing with bits as seen through several layers of abstractions. Incorrect results are a sign of one of the abstraction layers failing.
If two systems are talking to each other, they always need to
specify what encoding they want to talk to each other in. The simplest
example of this is this website telling your browser that it's encoded
in UTF-8.
In this day and age, the standard encoding is UTF-8 since it can
encode virtually any character of interest, is backwards compatible with
the de-facto baseline ASCII and is relatively space efficient for the
majority of use cases nonetheless.
Other encodings still occasionally have their uses, but you should
have a concrete reason for wanting to deal with the headaches associated
with character sets that can only encode a subset of Unicode.
The days of one byte = one character are over and both programmers and programs need to catch up on this.
Now you should really have no excuse anymore the next time you garble some text.
Yes, that means ASCII can be stored and transferred using only 7 bits
and it often is. No, this is not within the scope of this article and
for the sake of argument we'll assume the highest bit is "wasted" in
ASCII. ↩
And if it isn't, it will be extended. It already has been several times. ↩
Please note that when I'm using the term "starting" together with "byte", I mean it from the human-readable point of view. ↩
Peruse the UTF-8 specification if you want to follow this with pen and paper. ↩
A "Unicode character" is a code point in the Unicode table. "あ" is
not a Unicode character, it's the Hiragana letter あ. There is a Unicode
code point for it, but that doesn't make the letter itself a Unicode
character. A "UTF-8 character" is an oxymoron, but may be stretched to
mean what's technically called a "UTF-8 sequence", which is a byte
sequence of one, two, three or four bytes representing one Unicode
character. Both terms are often used in the sense of "any letter that ain't part of my keyboard" though, which means absolutely nothing. ↩
The only thing that a computer can store is bytes.
To store anything in a computer, you must first encode it, i.e. convert it to bytes. For example:
If you want to store music, you must first encode it using MP3, WAV, etc.
If you want to store a picture, you must first encode it using PNG, JPEG, etc.
If you want to store text, you must first encode it using ASCII, UTF-8, etc.
MP3, WAV, PNG, JPEG, ASCII and UTF-8 are examples of encodings. An encoding is a format to represent audio, images, text, etc in bytes.
In Python, a byte string is just that: a sequence of bytes. It isn't
human-readable. Under the hood, everything must be converted to a byte
string before it can be stored in a computer.
On the other hand, a character string, often just called a "string",
is a sequence of characters. It is human-readable. A character string
can't be directly stored in a computer, it has to be encoded
first (converted into a byte string). There are multiple encodings
through which a character string can be converted into a byte string,
such as ASCII and UTF-8.
'I am a string'.encode('ASCII')
The above Python code will encode the string 'I am a string' using the encoding ASCII. The result of the above code will be a byte string. If you print it, Python will represent it as b'I am a string'. Remember, however, that byte strings aren't human-readable, it's just that Python decodes them to ASCII when you print them. In Python, a byte string is represented by a b, followed by the byte string's ASCII representation.
A byte string can be decoded back into a character string, if you know the encoding that was used to encode it.
b'I am a string'.decode('ASCII')
The above code will return the original string 'I am a string'.
Encoding and decoding are inverse operations. Everything must be
encoded before it can be written to disk, and it must be decoded before
it can be read by a human.
a string is a sequence of characters, ie unicode codepoints;
these are an abstract concept, and can't be directly stored on disk. A
byte string is a sequence of, unsurprisingly, bytes - things that can be stored on disk. The mapping between them is an encoding
- there are quite a lot of these (and infinitely many are possible) -
and you need to know which applies in the particular case in order to do
the conversion, since a different encoding may map the same bytes to a
different string:
Once you know which one to use, you can use the .decode() method of the byte string to get the right character string from it as above. For completeness, the .encode() method of a character string goes the opposite way:
a="Cisco Switch" a.index("i") #find position of character a.count("i") #finds number of occurance of character "i" a.find("sco") #returns 2 as result as sco starts at position 2 (starting number is 0) a.lower() #convert to lowercase a.upper() #convert to uppercase a.startswith("C") # returns True as it starts with "C" a.endswith("h") # returns True as it ends at "h"
# Stripping white space >>> a=" hello worlddd " >>> a.strip() 'hello worlddd' # Stripping specific character >>> c = "$$$testing to strp dollar sign from start and end of string$$" >>> c.strip("$") 'testing to strp dollar sign from start and end of string'
The following example shows the usage of split() method.
# Replacing characters. Here we remove white space from string >>> b=" Lili bili tili mili " >>> b.replace(" ","") 'Lilibilitilimili'
# split the string based on delimiter to a list of elements >>> name="mahakali,bagmati,seti,karnali" >>> name.split(",") ['mahakali', 'bagmati', 'seti', 'karnali']
#String formatting
>>>"Average age of %s in %s is %d and attendence is %f percentage" % ("students","class",18,87.654) >>>'Average age of students in class is 18 and attendence is 87.654000 percentage'
another way by assigning all types of data to string >>> "Average age of %s in %s is %s and attendence is %s percentage" % ("students","class","18","87.654") 'Average age of students in class is 18 and attendence is 87.654 percentage'
>>> x="hello" >>> y="hi" >>> x+y 'hellohi'
>>> x*3 'hellohellohello' >>> x.find("ters") #returns negative if false -1
>>> "zzz" in x #returns false as "hello" doesnt have "zzz" in it False >>> "ll" in x #true as "hello" have "ll" in it True >>> "zzz" not in x #same thing but testing "not in x" True
#python utilizing builtin functions >>> x 'hello' >>> print(x.upper()) HELLO
#string array manipulation district="Ktm Nepal" >>> district[0:5] #note 5th element of string array "e" is omitted 'Ktm N' >>> district[2:] # outputs elements 2nd array element and rest of elements 'm NepaL' #in reverse order the string "Ktm Nepal" have below element number -1=L -2=a -3=p -4=e -5=N -6= #whitespace -7=m -8=t -9=K
>>> district[-9] 'K' >>> district[-5:-2] 'Nep' >>> district[-3:-4] # This will not work if you want to do some reverse order thing '' #output is nothing
If you want to print last 5 character district[-5:]
#more string slicing examples
>>> name="testdemo" >>> name[-3:] 'emo' >>> name[:-3] # index -1 to -3 are removed and rest are displayed 'testd'
#Reversing order of string
>>> name[::-1] 'omedtset'
Actually float(), int(), str() etc are constructors for their respective classes
Here are the docs about the "new" format syntax. An example would be:
And since the parameters are fields of self, there's also a way of doing it using a single argument twice (as @Burhan Khalid noted in the comments):
"({0.goals} goals, ${0.penalties})".format(self)
Explaining:
{} means just the next positional argument, with default format;
{0} means the argument with index 0, with default format;
{:d} is the next positional argument, with decimal integer format;
{0:d} is the argument with index 0, with decimal integer format.
There are many others things you can do when selecting an argument
(using named arguments instead of positional ones, accessing fields,
etc) and many format options as well (padding the number, using
thousands separators, showing sign or not, etc). Some other examples:
Set set is data type similar to a list but contain only unique element (no duplicate) eg.
>>> basket=['apple','orange','apple','pear','orange','banana']>>> fruit=set(basket)# create a set without duplicates>>> fruitset(['orange', 'pear', 'apple', 'banana'])
>>> a = "apple"
>>> a
'apple'
>>> a = set(a)
>>> a
{'p', 'l', 'a', 'e'} # note that there is no duplicate of character "p"
Dictionary/Associative Array defining dictinary: {key1:value1, key2:value2,} personinfo=dict ( name="ram",age=11,address="pokhara" ) #using dict() Another method:- >>>dict1={"name":"hari", "age":22,"address":"baneshwor","email":"hari@example.com"} note: here the keys(name,age,address,email) act as the index number (key are not sorted and they can be in any order so we may need to manually arrange order of key)
To append new key/value to dictionary:- >>> dic1['nationality'] = "Espanyol" >>> dic1 {'email': 'hari@example.com', 'age': 22, 'name': 'hari', 'nationality': 'Espanyol', 'address': 'baneshwor'}
for indexkey in dict1: print(indexkey,dict1[indexkey]) email hari@example.com age 22 name hari address baneshwor
To printout Assorted keyvalues:
>>> for kindx in sorted(dic.keys()): print(kindx,dic[kindx])
address baneshwor age 22 email hari@example.com name hari
###### Finding type and id of python object #######
# mutable sequences: list, byte array
# set type: sets
# mapping type: dict
# classes, class instancesetc.
And a trick is to use id()built-in function. For instance,
Using on integer:
>>> n = 1
>>> id(n)
**704
>>> n += 1
>>> n
2
>>> id(n)
**736
Using on list:
>>> m = [1]
>>> id(m)
**416
>>> m.append(2)
>>> m
[1, 2]
>>> id(m)
**416
>>> x=9
>>> y=9
>>> id(x)
1921755008
>>> id(y)
1921755008
>>> z=977
>>> id(z)
54610352
>>> x==y # Check if variables have same value"Double equalsto "=" "
True
>>> x is y # Check if variables point to same object
True
###### specifying logical value with True and False
>>> a, b = 10, 11
>>> a
10
>>> b
11
>>> a == b
False
>>> a > b
False
>>> a < b
True
#### If and else statement
vim ifelse.py
def main():
a,b=10,100
#or a=10
#or b=100
if a < b:
print('a is less than b')
else
print('b is less than a')
if __name__ == "__main__": main()
NOTE: what is if __name__ == "__main__": main() => if the python interpreter is running that module (the source file) as the main program, it sets the special __name__ variable to have a value "__main__". If this file is being imported from another module, __name__ will be set to the module's name. This trick exists in Python so that our
Python files can act as either reusable modules, or as standalone
programs.
the above "ifelse.py" file can be imported as module eg.
vim test.py import ifelse
....
def main():
var="seven"
if v=="one":
print("v is one")
elif v=="two": #each one of the condition are executed one time only
print("v is two")
elif v=="three":
print("v is three")
else:
print("v is something else")
if __name__ == "__main__": main()
##########similar method like switch statement###########
def main():
numbers = dict (
one = "first",
two = "second",
three = "third",
four = "fourth"
)
test = "twodd"
print(numbers.get(test,"other value")) # prints "other value" if provided key doesnt match existing key in dictionary
if __name__ == "__main__": main()
Thursday, July 2, 2015
Write a piece of Python code that prints out one of the following messages:
"string involved" if either varA or varB are strings
"bigger" if varA is larger than varB
"equal" if varA is equal to varB
"smaller" if varA is smaller than varB
if type(varA) == str or type(varB) == str:
print 'string involved'
elif varA > varB:
print 'bigger'
elif varA == varB:
print 'equal'
else:
# If none of the above conditions are true,
# it must be the case that varA < varB
print 'smaller'
root@vm1:~/pyscript# cat back.py
#!/usr/bin/python
#Python 2.7.6
db_name_file = '/root/pyscript/dbname.txt'
backup_dest = '/root/pyscript/sqlbackup/'
import os
import time
import datetime
dbhost = 'localhost'
dbuser = 'root'
dbpass = 'redhat'
datetime = time.strftime("%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S")
backuppathwithDT = backup_dest + datetime
#create directory if it does not exist
if not os.path.exists(backuppathwithDT):
os.makedirs(backuppathwithDT)
print "Checking for db names in file"
if os.path.exists(db_name_file):
file1 = open(db_name_file)
multi = 1
print "Database names found"
print "starting backup of databases.. "
else:
print "Database file not found in file"
multi = 0
#Starting backup
if multi:
in_file = open(db_name_file,"r")
flength = len(in_file.readlines()) ##in_file.readlines() returns a list
in_file.close()
p = 1
dbfile = open(db_name_file,"r")
while p <= flength:
db = dbfile.readline()
db = db[:-1] #deletes extra line
dumpcmd = "mysqldump -u " + dbuser + " -p" + dbpass + " " + db + " > " + backuppathwithDT + "/" + db + ".sql"
os.system(dumpcmd)
p = p + 1
dbfile.close()
else:
print "no database to dump"
print "Exiting..."
